1.  Basic Software

      This includes the time-sharing operating system with utilities, a machine language assembler and a compiler for the programming language C--enough software to write and run new applications and to maintain or modify UNIX itself.

1.1.  Operating System

o UNIX
The basic resident code on which everything else depends. Supports the system calls, and maintains the file system. A general description of UNIX design philosophy and system facilities appeared in the Communications of the ACM, July, 1974. A more extensive survey is in the Bell System Technical Journal for July-August 1978. Capabilities include:
O
Reentrant code for user processes.
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Separate instruction and data spaces.
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``Group'' access permissions for cooperative projects, with overlapping memberships.
O
Alarm-clock timeouts.
O
Timer-interrupt sampling and interprocess monitoring for debugging and measurement.
O
Multiplexed I/O for machine-to-machine communication.
o DEVICES
All I/O is logically synchronous. I/O devices are simply files in the file system. Normally, invisible buffering makes all physical record structure and device characteristics transparent and exploits the hardware's ability to do overlapped I/O. Unbuffered physical record I/O is available for unusual applications. Drivers for these devices are available; others can be easily written:
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Asynchronous interfaces: DH11, DL11. Support for most common ASCII terminals.
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Synchronous interface: DP11.
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Automatic calling unit interface: DN11.
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Line printer: LP11.
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Magnetic tape: TU10 and TU16.
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DECtape: TC11.
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Fixed head disk: RS11, RS03 and RS04.
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Pack type disk: RP03, RP04, RP06; minimum-latency seek scheduling.
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Cartridge-type disk: RK05, one or more physical devices per logical device.
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Null device.
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Physical memory of PDP-11, or mapped memory in resident system.
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Phototypesetter: Graphic Systems System/1 through DR11C.
o BOOT
Procedures to get UNIX started.
o MKCONF
Tailor device-dependent system code to hardware configuration. As distributed, UNIX can be brought up directly on any acceptable CPU with any acceptable disk, any sufficient amount of core, and either clock. Other changes, such as optimal assignment of directories to devices, inclusion of floating point simulator, or installation of device names in file system, can then be made at leisure.

1.2.  User Access Control

o LOGIN
Sign on as a new user.
O
Verify password and establish user's individual and group (project) identity.
O
Adapt to characteristics of terminal.
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Establish working directory.
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Announce presence of mail (from MAIL).
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Publish message of the day.
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Execute user-specified profile.
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Start command interpreter or other initial program.
o PASSWD
Change a password.
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User can change his own password.
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Passwords are kept encrypted for security.
o NEWGRP
Change working group (project). Protects against unauthorized changes to projects.

1.3.  Terminal Handling

o TABS
Set tab stops appropriately for specified terminal type.
o STTY
Set up options for optimal control of a terminal. In so far as they are deducible from the input, these options are set automatically by LOGIN.
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Half vs. full duplex.
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Carriage return+line feed vs. newline.
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Interpretation of tabs.
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Parity.
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Mapping of upper case to lower.
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Raw vs. edited input.
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Delays for tabs, newlines and carriage returns.

1.4.  File Manipulation

o CAT
Concatenate one or more files onto standard output. Particularly used for unadorned printing, for inserting data into a pipeline, and for buffering output that comes in dribs and drabs. Works on any file regardless of contents.
o CP
Copy one file to another, or a set of files to a directory. Works on any file regardless of contents.
o PR
Print files with title, date, and page number on every page.
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Multicolumn output.
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Parallel column merge of several files.
o LPR
Off-line print. Spools arbitrary files to the line printer.
o CMP
Compare two files and report if different.
o TAIL
Print last n lines of input
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May print last n characters, or from n lines or characters to end.
o SPLIT
Split a large file into more manageable pieces. Occasionally necessary for editing (ED).
o DD
Physical file format translator, for exchanging data with foreign systems, especially IBM 370's.
o SUM
Sum the words of a file.

1.5.  Manipulation of Directories and File Names

o RM
Remove a file. Only the name goes away if any other names are linked to the file.
O
Step through a directory deleting files interactively.
O
Delete entire directory hierarchies.
o LN
``Link'' another name (alias) to an existing file.
o MV
Move a file or files. Used for renaming files.
o CHMOD
Change permissions on one or more files. Executable by files' owner.
o CHOWN
Change owner of one or more files.
o CHGRP
Change group (project) to which a file belongs.
o MKDIR
Make a new directory.
o RMDIR
Remove a directory.
o CD
Change working directory.
o FIND
Prowl the directory hierarchy finding every file that meets specified criteria.
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Criteria include: name matches a given pattern,
creation date in given range,
date of last use in given range,
given permissions,
given owner,
given special file characteristics,
boolean combinations of above.
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Any directory may be considered to be the root.
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Perform specified command on each file found.

1.6.  Running of Programs

o SH
The Shell, or command language interpreter.
O
Supply arguments to and run any executable program.
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Redirect standard input, standard output, and standard error files.
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Pipes: simultaneous execution with output of one process connected to the input of another.
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Compose compound commands using: if ... then ... else,
case switches,
while loops,
for loops over lists,
break, continue and exit,
parentheses for grouping.
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Initiate background processes.
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Perform Shell programs, i.e., command scripts with substitutable arguments.
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Construct argument lists from all file names satisfying specified patterns.
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Take special action on traps and interrupts.
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User-settable search path for finding commands.
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Executes user-settable profile upon login.
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Optionally announces presence of mail as it arrives.
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Provides variables and parameters with default setting.
o TEST
Tests for use in Shell conditionals.
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String comparison.
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File nature and accessibility.
O
Boolean combinations of the above.
o EXPR
String computations for calculating command arguments.
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Integer arithmetic
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Pattern matching
o WAIT
Wait for termination of asynchronously running processes.
o READ
Read a line from terminal, for interactive Shell procedure.
o ECHO
Print remainder of command line. Useful for diagnostics or prompts in Shell programs, or for inserting data into a pipeline.
o SLEEP
Suspend execution for a specified time.
o NOHUP
Run a command immune to hanging up the terminal.
o NICE
Run a command in low (or high) priority.
o KILL
Terminate named processes.
o CRON
Schedule regular actions at specified times.
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Actions are arbitrary programs.
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Times are conjunctions of month, day of month, day of week, hour and minute. Ranges are specifiable for each.
o AT
Schedule a one-shot action for an arbitrary time.
o TEE
Pass data between processes and divert a copy into one or more files.

1.7.  Status Inquiries

o LS
List the names of one, several, or all files in one or more directories.
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Alphabetic or temporal sorting, up or down.
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Optional information: size, owner, group, date last modified, date last accessed, permissions, i-node number.
o FILE
Try to determine what kind of information is in a file by consulting the file system index and by reading the file itself.
o DATE
Print today's date and time. Has considerable knowledge of calendric and horological peculiarities.
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May set UNIX's idea of date and time.
o DF
Report amount of free space on file system devices.
o DU
Print a summary of total space occupied by all files in a hierarchy.
o QUOT
Print summary of file space usage by user id.
o WHO
Tell who's on the system.
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List of presently logged in users, ports and times on.
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Optional history of all logins and logouts.
o PS
Report on active processes.
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List your own or everybody's processes.
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Tell what commands are being executed.
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Optional status information: state and scheduling info, priority, attached terminal, what it's waiting for, size.
o IOSTAT
Print statistics about system I/O activity.
o TTY
Print name of your terminal.
o PWD
Print name of your working directory.

1.8.  Backup and Maintenance

o MOUNT
Attach a device containing a file system to the tree of directories. Protects against nonsense arrangements.
o UMOUNT
Remove the file system contained on a device from the tree of directories. Protects against removing a busy device.
o MKFS
Make a new file system on a device.
o MKNOD
Make an i-node (file system entry) for a special file. Special files are physical devices, virtual devices, physical memory, etc.
o TP
o TAR
Manage file archives on magnetic tape or DECtape. TAR is newer.
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Collect files into an archive.
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Update DECtape archive by date.
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Replace or delete DECtape files.
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Print table of contents.
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Retrieve from archive.
o DUMP
Dump the file system stored on a specified device, selectively by date, or indiscriminately.
o RESTOR
Restore a dumped file system, or selectively retrieve parts thereof.
o SU
Temporarily become the super user with all the rights and privileges thereof. Requires a password.
o DCHECK
o ICHECK
o NCHECK
Check consistency of file system.
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Print gross statistics: number of files, number of directories, number of special files, space used, space free.
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Report duplicate use of space.
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Retrieve lost space.
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Report inaccessible files.
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Check consistency of directories.
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List names of all files.
o CLRI
Peremptorily expunge a file and its space from a file system. Used to repair damaged file systems.
o SYNC
Force all outstanding I/O on the system to completion. Used to shut down gracefully.

1.9.  Accounting

The timing information on which the reports are based can be manually cleared or shut off completely.

o AC
Publish cumulative connect time report.
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Connect time by user or by day.
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For all users or for selected users.
o SA
Publish Shell accounting report. Gives usage information on each command executed.
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Number of times used.
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Total system time, user time and elapsed time.
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Optional averages and percentages.
O
Sorting on various fields.

1.10.  Communication

o MAIL
Mail a message to one or more users. Also used to read and dispose of incoming mail. The presence of mail is announced by LOGIN and optionally by SH.
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Each message can be disposed of individually.
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Messages can be saved in files or forwarded.
o CALENDAR
Automatic reminder service for events of today and tomorrow.
o WRITE
Establish direct terminal communication with another user.
o WALL
Write to all users.
o MESG
Inhibit receipt of messages from WRITE and WALL.
o CU
Call up another time-sharing system.
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Transparent interface to remote machine.
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File transmission.
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Take remote input from local file or put remote output into local file.
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Remote system need not be UNIX.
o UUCP
UNIX to UNIX copy.
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Automatic queuing until line becomes available and remote machine is up.
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Copy between two remote machines.
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Differences, mail, etc., between two machines.

1.11.  Basic Program Development Tools

Some of these utilities are used as integral parts of the higher level languages described in section 2.

o AR
Maintain archives and libraries. Combines several files into one for housekeeping efficiency.
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Create new archive.
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Update archive by date.
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Replace or delete files.
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Print table of contents.
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Retrieve from archive.
o AS
Assembler. Similar to PAL-11, but different in detail.
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Creates object program consisting of code, possibly read-only,
initialized data or read-write code,
uninitialized data.
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Relocatable object code is directly executable without further transformation.
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Object code normally includes a symbol table.
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Multiple source files.
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Local labels.
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Conditional assembly.
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``Conditional jump'' instructions become branches or branches plus jumps depending on distance.
o Library
The basic run-time library. These routines are used freely by all software.
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Buffered character-by-character I/O.
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Formatted input and output conversion (SCANF and PRINTF) for standard input and output, files, in-memory conversion.
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Storage allocator.
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Time conversions.
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Number conversions.
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Password encryption.
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Quicksort.
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Random number generator.
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Mathematical function library, including trigonometric functions and inverses, exponential, logarithm, square root, bessel functions.
o ADB
Interactive debugger.
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Postmortem dumping.
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Examination of arbitrary files, with no limit on size.
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Interactive breakpoint debugging with the debugger as a separate process.
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Symbolic reference to local and global variables.
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Stack trace for C programs.
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Output formats: 1-, 2-, or 4-byte integers in octal, decimal, or hex


single and double floating point


character and string


disassembled machine instructions


O
Patching.
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Searching for integer, character, or floating patterns.
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Handles separated instruction and data space.
o OD
Dump any file. Output options include any combination of octal or decimal by words, octal by bytes, ASCII, opcodes, hexadecimal.
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Range of dumping is controllable.
o LD
Link edit. Combine relocatable object files. Insert required routines from specified libraries.
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Resulting code may be sharable.
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Resulting code may have separate instruction and data spaces.
o LORDER
Places object file names in proper order for loading, so that files depending on others come after them.
o NM
Print the namelist (symbol table) of an object program. Provides control over the style and order of names that are printed.
o SIZE
Report the core requirements of one or more object files.
o STRIP
Remove the relocation and symbol table information from an object file to save space.
o TIME
Run a command and report timing information on it.
o PROF
Construct a profile of time spent per routine from statistics gathered by time-sampling the execution of a program. Uses floating point.
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Subroutine call frequency and average times for C programs.
o MAKE
Controls creation of large programs. Uses a control file specifying source file dependencies to make new version; uses time last changed to deduce minimum amount of work necessary.
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Knows about CC, YACC, LEX, etc.

1.12.  UNIX Programmer's Manual

o Manual
Machine-readable version of the UNIX Programmer's Manual.
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System overview.
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All commands.
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All system calls.
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All subroutines in C and assembler libraries.
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All devices and other special files.
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Formats of file system and kinds of files known to system software.
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Boot and maintenance procedures.
o MAN
Print specified manual section on your terminal.

1.13.  Computer-Aided Instruction

o LEARN
A program for interpreting CAI scripts, plus scripts for learning about UNIX by using it.
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Scripts for basic files and commands, editor, advanced files and commands, EQN, MS macros, C programming language.